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THERMODYNAMICS, KINETICS,
AND MICROPHYSICS OF CLOUDS
Climate change has provided a new impetus for research on clouds and precipitation. One of the greatest
uncertainties in current global climate models is cloud feedback, arising from uncertainties in the param-
eterization of cloud processes and their impact on the global radiation balance. In the past two decades,
substantial progress has been made in the simulation of clouds using cloud resolving models. However,
most of the parameterizations employed in these models have been empirically based. New theoretical
descriptions of cloud processes are now being incorporated into cloud models, using spectral microphysics
based on the kinetic equations for the drop and crystal size spectra along with the supersaturation equation,
and newer parameterizations of drop activation and ice nucleation based on the further development of the
classical nucleation theory. From these models, cloud microphysics parameterizations are being developed
for use in global weather and climate models.
Thermodynamics, Kinetics, and Microphysics of Clouds
reflects this shift to an increasingly theoretical
basis for the simulation and parameterization of cloud processes. The book presents a unified theoretical
foundation that provides the basis for incorporating cloud microphysical processes in cloud and climate
models in a manner that represents interactions and feedback processes over the relevant range of environ-
mental and parametric conditions. In particular, this book provides:
• the closed system of equations of spectral cloud microphysics that includes kinetic equations for the
drop and crystal size spectra for regular and stochastic condensation/deposition and coagulation/accretion
along with the supersaturation equations;
• the latest theories and theoretical parameterizations of aerosol hygroscopic growth, drop activation, and
ice homogeneous and heterogeneous nucleation, derived from the general principles of thermodynamics
and kinetics and suitable for cloud and climate models;
• a theoretical basis for understanding the processes of cloud particle formation, evolution, and precipitation,
based on numerical cloud simulations and analytical solutions to the kinetic equations and supersaturation
equation;
• a platform for advanced parameterizations of clouds in weather prediction and climate models using
these solutions; and
• the scientific foundation for weather and climate modification by cloud seeding.
This book will be invaluable for researchers and advanced students engaged in cloud and aerosol physics,
and air pollution and climate research.
Vitaly I. Khvorostyanov is Professor of Physics of the Atmosphere and Hydrosphere, Central Aerological
Observatory (CAO), Russian Federation. His research interests are in cloud physics, cloud numerical model-
ing, atmospheric radiation, and cloud-aerosol and cloud-radiation interactions, with applications for climate
studies and weather modification. He has served as Head of the Laboratory of Numerical Modeling of
Cloud Seeding at CAO, Coordinator of the Cloud Modeling Programs on Weather Modification by Cloud
Seeding in the USSR and Russia, Member of the International GEWEX Radiation Panel of the World Climate
Research Program, and Member of the International Working Group on Cloud-Aerosol Interactions.
Dr. Khvorostyanov has worked as a visiting scientist and Research Professor in the United States, United
Kingdom, France, Germany, and Israel. He has co-authored nearly 200 journal articles and four books:
Numerical Simulation of Clouds
(1984),
Clouds and Climate
(1986),
Energy-Active Zones: Conceptual
Foundations
(1989), and
Cirrus
(2002). Dr. Khvorostyanov is a member of the American Geophysical
Union and the American Meteorological Society.
Judith A. Curry is Professor and Chair of the School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences at the Georgia
Institute of Technology. She previously held faculty positions at the University of Colorado, Penn State
University, and Purdue University. Dr. Curry’s research interests span a variety of topics in the atmospheric
and climate sciences. Current interests include cloud microphysics, air and sea interactions, and climate
feedback processes associated with clouds and sea ice. Dr. Curry is co-author of
Thermodynamics of
Atmospheres and Oceans
(1999) and editor of the
Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences
(2003). She has
published more than 190 refereed journal articles. Dr. Curry is a Fellow of the American Meteorological
Society, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the American Geophysical Union.
In 1992, she received the Henry Houghton Award from the American Meteorological Society.
The Cloud
Percy Bysshe Shelley (1820)
I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers,
From the seas and the streams;
I bear light shade for the leaves when laid
In their noonday dreams.
From my wings are shaken the dews that waken
The sweet buds every one,
When rocked to rest on their mother’s breast,
As she dances about the sun.
I wield the flail of the lashing hail,
And whiten the green plains under,
And then again I dissolve it in rain,
And laugh as I pass in thunder.
I am the daughter of Earth and Water,
And the nursling of the Sky;
I pass through the pores of the oceans and shores;
I change, but I cannot die.
For after the rain, when with never a stain
The pavilion of Heaven is bare
And the winds and sunbeams with their convex gleams
Build up the blue dome of air,
I silently laugh at my own cenotaph
And out of the caverns of rain,
Like a child from the womb, like a ghost from the tomb,
I arise and unbuild it again.
(Poetical Works of Shelley (Cambridge Editions),
by Percy Bysshe Shelley (Author), Newell F. Ford (Introduction).
Publisher: Houghton Mifflin; Revised edition,
January 1975, 704 pages, ISBN-10: 0395184614)
THERMODYNAMICS,
KINETICS, AND
MICROPHYSICS OF CLOUDS
VITALY I. KHVOROSTYANOV
Central Aerological Observatory, Russia
JUDITH A. CURRY
Georgia Institute of Technology, USA
32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10013-2473, USA
Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.
It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107016033
© Vitaly I. Khvorostyanov and Judith A. Curry 2014
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2014
Printed in the United States of America
A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Khvorostyanov, Vitaly I.
Thermodynamics, kinetics, and microphysics of clouds / Vitaly I. Khvorostyanov,
Judith A. Curry. — First edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-107-01603-3
1. Precipitation (Meteorology)—Measurement. 2. Cloud forecasting.
3. Precipitation forecasting. 4. Atmospheric thermodynamics. I. Curry, Judith A. II. Title.
QC925.K47 2014
551.57’6—dc23
2014001806
ISBN 978-1-107-01603-3 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of
URLs for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not
guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
Contents
Preface
1.
Introduction
1.1. Relations among Thermodynamics, Kinetics, and Cloud Microphysics
1.2. The Correspondence Principle
1.3. Structure of the Book
Clouds and Their Properties
2.1. Cloud Classification
2.2. Cloud Regimes and Global Cloud Distribution
2.2.1. Large-Scale Condensation in Fronts and Cyclones
2.2.2. Sc-St Clouds and Types of Cloud-Topped Boundary Layer
2.2.3. Convective Cloudiness in the Intertropical Convergence Zone
2.2.4. Orographic Cloudiness
2.3. Cloud Microphysical Properties
2.4. Size Spectra and Moments
2.4.1. Inverse Power Laws
2.4.2. Lognormal Distributions
2.4.3. Algebraic Distributions
2.4.4. Gamma Distributions
2.5. Cloud Optical Properties
Appendix A.2.
Evaluation of the Integrals
with Lognormal Distribution
Thermodynamic Relations
3.1. Thermodynamic Potentials
3.2. Statistical Energy Distributions
3.2.1. The Gibbs Distribution
3.2.2. The Maxwell Distribution
3.2.3. The Boltzmann Distribution
3.2.4. Bose–Einstein Statistics
3.2.5. Fermi–Dirac Statistics
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