Copernicus - On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres.pdf

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DE
REVOLUTTONTtsUS
ORBIUA/T
COELESWUA4T
OF
THE
F{EAME]NtY
-
ON
TF{E REVOTUTNONS
SPF]IERES
Nicolaus Copernicus,
1543
and
follow
its
consequer-lce.,'
"
'....
the
result which
we
hope
to
attain by the motion of
the
Earth.
we
shail
assume
this
motion
ir
nyptinesis
"
Nicolaus Copernicus,
1
543
Be
center
to the
woiro,
HT:il$?i"1:
By
this attractive virtue
and
their
own
lncited,
dance
about
him
various
rounds?
Their wondering
course now
high,
now low,
then
hid,
Progressive, retrograde,
or
standing
still,
ln six thou seest, and
what
if
seventh
to
ihese
The planet
Earth, so stedfast
though sne
seems,
lnsensibly three different
motions move?
-
John Milton, paradise
Lost, Book
Vlll,
1667
2
Table
of
Contents
The
Almagest
of
Ptolemy
.........4
.......................5
...................7
............8
Nicolaus
Copernicus
(1473
The Concept
- 1543).....
of
the
Sphere.....
Science....
Nicolaus
Copernicus
and
Modern
A
Commentary
on the
Ilypothesis Concerning
Celestial
Motion...,.........15
Preface
to
De
Revolutionibus..........
........18
First
Book,
De
Revolutionibus...
.............22
1.
That the Universe is
9pherica|................
........22
2.
That
the
Earth
also is
Spherical..
................22
3.
How Earth,
with
the Water on
it, Forms
one
\phere......................23
4.
That
the
Motion
of
the
Heavenly Badies
is
Uniform,
Circular, and
Perpetual,
or
Composed
of Circular
Motion......
.....24
5.
Whether
Circulqr
Motion
Belongs
to
the
Earth;
and Concerning
its
Position....
...........25
6.
Of the
Vqstness
of
the
Heqvens Compared
to
the Size
of
the
Earth....27
7.
Wy
the
Ancients Believed
that
the
Earth
is
at
Rest,
like a
Centre,
in
the
Middle
of
the
Universe....
.................28
8.
The
Insfficiency
of
these
Arguments
and
Iheir
Refutation...............29
9.
Wether More
than
one
Motion
csn
be
Attributed
ta
the
Earth,
arul
of
the Centre
of the
Universe.
....................32
10.
Of
the
Order of
the
Heavenly
Bodies......
.....33
I
I.
Explanation of
the
ThreefoldMotion
of
the
Earth
........37
..............40
.............45
The Study
of
Astronoffiy,..........
Copernicus Discovered
Nothing
Planets.....
Apparent Motion
and the
Orbits
of the
..................46
...............50
Glossary..
3
The
Almagest
of
Ptolemy
Ptolemy
worked
at
the
famous
University
of
Alexandria
in
Egypt
around
150
A.D.
Alexandria
at
that
time was
the
most important
city
in
the
Eastern
part
of
the
Mediterranean.
Alexandra
was built
by
Alexander
the
Great
(356
-
323 B.C.) in the
3'd
century
B.C.
The
city
included
not only
an
excellent University,
but the
famous library
of
Alexandria which once
held over
a
million
folio and
parchments.
Geocentric
Earth centered
-
Heliocentric-
Sun centered
The
Earth
centered,
or
geocentric, model
of
the
solar
system
was
developed by Aristotle around
350
B.C. and
elaborated
by
Claudius
Ptolemy
of
Alexandria
around 150
A.D.
There
had
been
other
mathematicians like
the
Pythagorean Philolaus
who
argued
for
a
Sun
centered,
heliocentric,
model
of
the
solar
system
however
the
Aristotelians prevailed and Sun
centered models
of the solar
system
were
forgotten
for
fifteen
centuries.
Almagest
"The
Greatest"
-
Ptolemy outlined his system in a treatise which has become
known as
the
Almagesf, meaning
"the
greatest".
What
Ptolemy established
for
the
first
time
was
a
working
mathematical model by
which the
positions
of
the planets could
be
predicted
accurately.
ln
the
Ptolemaic system,
each planet
moved in a small
circle
known
as
an epicycle, whose centre was carried
round
the
Earth
in
a
larger
orbit
known
as the
deferens.
For
fourteen centuries astronomers
computed
planetary
positions from
tables
based on
this
analysis.
Figure
1.
The
Ptolemaic
System
-
the
Earth is
at
the
Centre of
the
Universe
,',;,.1;;,,,,
'1.",t,,:,:;.
:,',:,;,;,,
,,,,;,1,1;
Ptolemy's Atmagest
was
unknown
in
the
early
Middle
Ages.
lts first
appearance
in
Western
Europe
is in
a
translation
made
direct
from the
,,;;;,i
Greek
in
Sicily
in
the year
1160.
't,:.,,:::,
Translation
direct
from
the
,|,t,:',,:t
Greek
was very unusual in
the
,l:,:,tttt 1
2th
century.
,,',;.,::;
:iiii
About
1170
the
Englishman
l1i
Daniel
of
Morley
was
studying
iiiiti
the
Arabic
text
of
Ptolemy
at
,i:liji
Toledo
in
Moorish Spain
with
the
help
of
a
native Arabic-speaking Christian,
lbn
Ghalib.
Daniel
recounts
how
he
listened
in
as
lbn
Ghalib worked
with the
famous
translator Gerard of
Cremona
(died
1187).
Gerard's translation
of the
Almagest
was
completed
about
1175
and
used
in the
Middle
Ages.
Gerard's
translation
was from
Arabic into
Latin.
,ii,,:.1
4
The
Almagesf
was again translated from
the
Greek
in
the
1Sth
century
by
George
of
Trezibond
(1396-1486).
Copies
were
made
of
the
Trezibond translation
in
Venice
in 1528 and were distributed
to
libraries
across ltaly,
including
the Medici Library
in
Florence.
lt is believed
that
Copernicus
used a
Trezibond
copy of
the
Ptolemy's Almagest.
Nicolaus
Copernicus
(1
473
-
1543)
Cracow was the
ancient
capital of
Poland.
Copernicus was born on February
1gth,
1
473,
in
Torun, Polish
Prussia,
the son of a
merchant,
youngest child
of
four.
He lost his
father at
age
ten
and
was adopted
by
his
uncle.
For
his
time
Copernicus
was
exceptionally
educated.
He
studied
mathematics
and
geometry
at
Crakow, Greek
at
Bologna, medicine
at
Padua
in
ltaly and
became Doctor
of Canon
Law
at Ferrara
in
1503.
It
is worth noting that when
Christopher Columbus
sailed
to the
new
world
in
1492
Copernicus was a student at the Jagiellonian
University
in
Crakow;
and during
his
lifetime Magellan's expedition rounded the
world.
Copernicus'
new
celestial
investigations
were
part
of
this
Age of
Exploration.
When
Copernicus
was
19
Columbus
sailed to the
New
World
As
a
student,
Copernicus followed
the
standard medieval
curriculum,
inherited
from
Roman
educational
practice:
the
trivium
-
grammar,
dialectic,
rhetoric
-
and the
quadrivium
-
arithmetic, music,
geometry
and
astronomy.
On
completion of his university education
he
went
on
to
lecture in
mathematics
at
Rome.
Copernicus was proficient in Greek and Latin,
using
his linguistic skills
to
read,
translate
and
in
some cases
transcribe
several
of
the
important Greek
and
Latin
books.
He
was,
however not
a
believer
in
Scholasticism.
ln
his
late
twenties
he
returned home
and
was
appointed
a
canon
of
Warmia,
in
Prussian
Poland.
He
retained this
position until
his
death in
1543, he
never
married.
Though today he
is remembered as the
father of
modern
astronomy,
in
his
own
time he
made
his
livelihood
not
as
an
astronomer,
but as
an
ecclesiastic.
His
position
as canon
of
the
cathedral of
Fromback gave
him
both financial
security
and
freedom
to
continue
his
studies
in
medicine, mathematics
and astronomy.
Copernicus used
his
medical
skill
to
help
the
poor,
and his
mathematical
skills
to
develop
his
astronomical
theories.
5

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